Development throughout history of the concept of childhood

What are the past beginnings and philosophical constructs of childhood? Has the society ever treated the kid as a ‘whole individual ‘ , given him or her the necessary position in society? Was there a break-through in outlook? The intent of this essay is, to assist me place and derive an apprehension to see whether childhood became an established and recognized clip of life for the kid throughout the centuries. Personally, I believe that, all kids deserve an chance to turn out their capablenesss and that they should be respected as persons. However, until around the 12th century, European society did non believe of childhood as an of import period of development, in the mode that we do today. Children were non cherished as persons. In the Middle Ages, kids had no position in society, and were considered as ‘miniature ‘ grownups. Children were trained to go the future productive members of the society or community. Furthermore, the immature kids were non expected to necessitate any particular intervention. This quiet attitude, reflected profoundly in the deficiency of schools available. The possibility of holding proper instruction was distant, and considered to be an excessive luxury tantrum merely for the male childs coming from affluent households. Children ‘s public assistance and rights were still non recognised or acknowledged. But society ‘s political orientation towards the construct of childhood changed bit by bit from clip to clip. Research shows that finally, kids stopped being consider ed as an add-on part to their households ‘ fiscal economic system. Thankss to the enterprise attempts and work of influential international figures, new constructs of childhood were introduced. New systems and reforms were established to give position to the kid. Towards the 20th century instruction replaced child-labour. Unlike old centuries, society acknowledged the assets of the kid ‘s educational part, instead than his fiscal input. Since so, instruction became the chief component of childhood, and has become a necessity. Much can be said about the twenty- first century where, individuality and creativeness are synonymous with early childhood.Surveies into the history of childhood during the medieval timesThis was non ever the instance, as one of the most controversial issues of the survey of childhood ‘s history is whether or non kids were treated as illumination grownups. Early surveies into the history of childhood were those of Rams Philippe ( 1962 ) , and Lloyd De Mause, ( 1976 ) . Both historiographers came to a decision and stated that the kids ‘s public assistance has evolved significantly throughout the last centuries.A Both historiographers give a really negative image of mediaeval childhood. Lloyd De Mause ( 1976 ) went every bit far as stating that ; A † The history of childhood is a incubus from which we have merely late begun to rouse, † Furthermore he stated that ; â€Å" The farther back in history one goes, the lower the degree of kid attention, and the more likely kids are to be killed, abandoned, crush, terrorized, and sexually abused † . Lloyd De Mause, ( ed. ) , The History of Childhood ( London, 1976 ) . Furthermore, Aries pointed out and supported this thought by stating that, â€Å" It is difficult to believe that this disregard was due to incompetence or incapacity ; it seems more likely that there was no topographic point for childhood in the mediaeval universe. â€Å" ( Aries, 2002, p.33 ) Furthermore, in his book ‘Centuries of childhood ‘ , he continues to prolong this statement by stating that â€Å" there was no construct of childhood as a stateA different to adulthood in these centuries, and hence, even if parents did experience fondness for their progeny, they did non to the full understand how to react to the emotional demands of their kids. â€Å" . Aries, Philippe, 1962, Centuries of Childhood, New York: Random House However, this statement was strongly challenged by Hawalt et Al ( 1986 ) . To turn out her point she researched corner inquest records where it was concluded that mediaeval households did in fact make a differentiation between a kid and an grownup. Hawalt ( 1986 ) Hwang, P.C. , in Lamb, ME. , and Sigel I.E. ( erectile dysfunction ) ( 1996 ) Images of Childhood. London: Routledge David Archard ( 2001 ) , besides agrees with this sentiment. He argues that, â€Å" all societies at all times have had the construct of childhood, that is to state, the construct that kids can be distinguished from grownups in assorted ways † Archard D. , in Heywood. C ( erectile dysfunction ) ( 2001 ) A history of Childhood. USA: Blackwell Publishers Inc. Linda Pollack, ( 1983 ) in her strict research criticised badly all the sentiments of Rams and de Mause and argues that childhood was non every bit austere as it was implied by these two authors. She continues to prolong her point and says, that the parents ever treated their kids in the same manner and that there was no alteration at all during this period. Furthermore, she argues that childhood did non germinate much during this period. A † The texts reveal no important alteration in the quality of parental attention given to, or the sum of fondness felt for babies for the period 1500-1900 † Linda Pollock, Forgotten Children – Parent: Child Relationss from 1500-1900 ( Cambridge University Press, 1983 ) . It is deserving presuming that, there are different sentiments of how childhood was perceived throughout the centuries. In order to find this, it is of import to set up if there was a alteration, how it changed, and the concluding result of this alteration. The alteration through History â€Å" Any state and people that truly believes attending to kids ‘s attention and instruction during the early old ages is of incomputable value to society would do every sensible attempt to put in preschool instruction † . Early on Childhood Education diary, Vol 32, no 3 December 2004 ( c2004 ) Blended perspectives A Global vision for high Quality E.C.E. Between the 16th and seventeenth century ( pre-industrial period ) , England was chiefly rural and agricultural. During their childhood, childs worked in the Fieldss. If they could non work on their households ‘ farm, they were put to work elsewhere. The modern thought of childhood being separated from adulthood life, started to develop throughout the 16th century. Middle category parents began to demand some signifier of formal educational system for their boies. Consequently, schooling for male childs started acquiring popular. This radical societal attitude towards kids and childhood, now requested new educational commissariats. The figure of new schools began spread outing throughout Europe. Parents opted for their kids to go to school, instead than learning them grown-up accomplishments. By the terminal of the 16th century, and beginning of the 17th century, society started separating the function of a kid from that of an grownup. This new construct of childhood put upper category kids in the spotlight, and they shortly became a beginning of amusement among grownups. They were dressed stylish apparels and were the delectation of their parents. However, another new perceptual experience of the construct of childhood shortly arose amongst the church and the moralists, who felt that during the early old ages, religious development was of import. They thought that kids needed subject and instruction. The kid was perceived as â€Å" a delicate animal, who must be protected, educated, and moulded in conformity with the current educational beliefs and ends † . ( Aries, 2002, p.35 ) However, during the Victorian age, the idea of holding any primary instruction was still non that indispensable. However, the Victorian epoch has been depicted by historiographers, as a footing of the modern construct of early childhood instruction. Paradoxically, during this period, the Industrial revolution promoted child labor. At this clip, the industrial Revolution brought on new occupations. Children worked daily in coal mines and mills. They carried out risky occupations. They were ideal for these occupations as they were nimble, and could creep into little topographic points between the heavy machines. They were paid less than grownups. Throughout their childhood, male childs and misss had no pick but to work hard, in order to assist their households. This was non considered mean or odd, because parents thought that work was of import for the fiscal state of affairs of their households. Throughout this clip, kids spent their childhood crammed in overcrowded suites and unhealthy environment. All this resulted in bad wellness, hurts, and sometimes even decease. In his novels, Charles Dickens ( 1812 ) emphasizes on the badness of their childhood. Child manual labor was easy diminished and eventually stopped in Britain. This alteration was brought on through the debut of the mill Acts of 1802-1878. Britain and all Europe were still short of any primary educational proviso. During the 17th and eighteenth century, â€Å" Monitorial † schools, which were established by the Quaker, Joseph Lancaster, and the New Lanark simple schools, founded by Robert Owen were the lone foundations which provided instruction for the babies. During this period there was still the thought that instruction throughout childhood was irrelevant. The bulk of the kids did non go to school, as it was non yet compulsory. Merely boys coming from affluent households could afford to travel to school. They were provided with simple instruction to assist them with basic literacy, and arithmetic. On the other manus, small misss in Britain, stayed at place, to larn how to go good married womans. Disabled kids were besides capable to be neglected and forgott en. However, it was really improbable for kids to hold good quality occupations when they became grownups. Lloyd de Mause ( 1976 ) supports this statement, and says that kids grew up ‘unable to compose or read ‘ . De Mause, Lloyd, ( 1976 ) . ( ed. ) , The History of Childhood: London, The Victorians bit by bit started gaining the function of the kid during childhood. Influential reformists started going aware of the true construct of childhood. They started debating the development of kids. Politicians besides become witting that educating kids could be an plus to the future society. Since so this construct of childhood remained dominant in other societies. Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) sustains this by â€Å" the instruction of immature kids could lend to the development of a better society † Nutbrown C. , Clough P. , and Selbie P ( 2010 ) Early on Childhood Education. , London: Sage publications Throughout history, early childhood pedagogues struggled to better kids ‘s instruction and holistic demands. Historically they all sustained the same thought that of kids need instruction to develop their maximal potency. However these influential figures were n't all of the same sentiment about the instruction and theories of larning. They disagreed on several issues, but all emphasized on the importance of a multi-sensory attack to acquisition. Froebel, Montessori and Steiner all agreed upon touchable stuff which enabled the kid to research and detect the universe around them. Some other innovators of that clip assumed that kid ‘s development is an innate accomplishment. Although their construct of kid ‘s development differed, Russeau, Piaget and Vygotsky all agreed that the kid ‘s features were portion of ‘nature ‘ . Consequently, during the eighteenth and 19th centuries schools started being established by helpers and politicians who believed that society could be of an advantage by holding better educated kids. Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) wrote, ‘Schools were being developed and systems devised and expanded, non merely by spiritual administrations and helpers, but besides of class by the socially and politically motivated who were driven, non by spiritual strong belief but by a belief that the instruction of immature kids could lend to the development of a better society ‘ . When compulsory instruction was introduced in the 19th century there was a despairing opposition from propertyless households. They needed the kids ‘s rewards and would non interchange them for instruction. However, the work and attempt of early innovators contributed to the historical and philosophical alterations which finally improved the function of the kids in society. Influential Figures and their doctrine of childhood Education is the uterus in which our society reproduces itself and re-creates itself for the hereafter. ( Louis Galea Minister of Education, National Minimum Curriculum Malta -1999 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //curriculum.gov.mt/docs/nmc_english.pdf Many influential figures in history started altering the thoughts, the policies and wonts of how early instruction was perceived by society. The thought that educating kids would give part to society was accepted. Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) pg 5, sustains this statement when she wrote and said ‘seeing instruction and schooling as portion of what we could name a societal intercession to do a difference to the lives of hapless and orphaned kids ‘ Influential figures that contributed in the development of early childhood instruction are brought up in this survey. Although their thoughts of childhood development were different, all of them thought that the kid ‘s unconditioned inclinations and characteristic were portion of ‘nature ‘ and that larning should be by find and non by instructions. Comenius ( 1592-1670 ) , is credited for presenting the first illustration book for kids who was called: â€Å" Orbis Pictus ( The World of Pictures ) . He believed that kids needed images to assist them larn. His doctrine was based upon the thought that, kids should be permitted to play, learn and detect at their ain gait. He compared the kids to ‘seeds ‘ Selbie & A ; Clough ( 2005 ) diary of early childhood research 2005, Sage Publications ( www.sagepublications.com ) Nutbrown C et Al ( 2010 ) pg 113 sustains this and says, that they need a ‘guiding manus to assist them boom ‘ , and that ‘a kid can non be forced to larn ‘ . Nevertheless, she continues to state that ‘a kid will bloom into the flower he or she was created to go ‘ . Furthermore, she believes in societal betterment of inclusive instruction where ‘all kids should have their instruction, whatever their gender and societal category ‘ . In Nutbrown C. et Al ( 2010 ) During the 18th century Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( 1712-1778 ) , a philosopher, first wrote about ‘nurturing ‘ kids as opposed to the ‘repressive ‘ position taken at the clip ( MacLeod-Brudenell 2004 ) . Rousseau renowned for his book Emilie, encouraged free drama. He focused on the encompassing scenes. His manner is still followed today in early childhood categories. Following on from his work, other theoreticians have developed changing attacks to the attention and instruction of kids. Pestalozzi, ( 1746-1827 ) , born in Zurich, believed that kids should ‘discover the universe through activity ‘ . Nutbrown C. et Al ( 2001 ) Pg 112. His want was to educate the kid as a whole person. His involvements in kids ‘s rights makes him an of import focal point of historical and philosophical surveies. He was one of the primary laminitiss of inclusive instruction and subsequently founded a school for misss. Following Pestallozi, was Robert Owen ( ( 1771-1858 ) , who started the first simple schools for kids whose parents and older brothers worked in the New Lanark Mills. Furthermore, as stated in the book early childhood instruction, Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) he was ‘making an instruction of the community ‘ . He supported the passage of the Factory Act of 1819, and was the first from prohibiting instructors to hit kids. ‘I support a doctrine of instruction which does its best to cut down any demand for penalty ‘ Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) early childhood instruction Sage Publications Friedrich Froebel ( 1782-1852 ) , a German pedagogue, was one of the early innovators of the reformation of childhood instruction. As an dreamer, he supported the thought, that every kid from birth had educational potency, and that an appropriate educational scene was imperative to assist the kid to go on to turn and develop his or her optimum potency. â€Å" Young kids are to be regarded and tended basically similar workss. Like these, if they were given the right conditions, they would turn and unfold and flower, by their ain jurisprudence, each harmonizing to its single capacity and fate. † ( Lawrence, 1969, p.195 ) Lawrence, E ( 1969 ) Friedrich Froebel and English Education London, Routledge & A ; Kegan Paul Froebel believed that a kid should larn at his ain gait, and the kid should ne'er be hurried or rushed in this childhood development.â€Å" Young animate beings and workss are given remainder, and arbitrary intervention with their growing is avoided, because it is known that the opposite pattern would upset their pure flowering and sound development ; but, the immature human being is looked upon as a piece of wax or a ball of clay which adult male can model into what he pleases † ( Froebel, 1907, p. 8 ) .Froebel, F. ( 1907 ) The Education of Man New York, Appleton & A ; Co Froebel s doctrine was based on the importance of drama through manipulative stuffs, creativeness and motor experience. ‘Children must get the hang the linguistic communication of things before they master the linguistic communication of words ‘ Friedrich Froebel ( 1895 ) Pedagogies of the Kindergarten research publishing house on cyberspace He maintained the thought that a immature kid can merely larn through direct contact with touchable objects. Froebel ‘s dream was to make a universe for small kids†¦ a universe which he called kindergarten. Harmonizing to Froebel, â€Å" drama is the freest active manifestation of the kid ‘s inner ego which springs from the demand of that interior life consciousness to recognize itself externally. † ( Bowen, 1907, p.116 ) Bowen, H. ( 1907 ) Froebel and Education by Self-Activity London, William Heinemann In Froebel ‘s kindergarten, activities through drama enhanced a kid ‘s societal, emotional, physical and rational development. Play was the most of import stairss in the kid ‘s growing. Froebel was fascinated by the kid innate want to play. â€Å" It is through drama that the kid learns the usage of his limbs, of all his bodily variety meats, and with this usage additions wellness and strength. Through drama he comes to cognize the external universe, the physical qualities of the objects which surround him, their gestures, action, and reaction upon each other, and the relation of these phenomena to himself, iˆÂ ­ a cognition that forms the footing of that which will be his lasting stock for life. † ( Bowen, 1907, p.101 ) Bowen, H. ( 1907 ) Froebel and Education by Self-Activity London, William Heinemann To prolong his doctrine, he provided the babies with educational playthings to excite their creativeness. Charlotte Mason ( 1842-1923 ) , another innovator, whose doctrine in educating was by allowing kids use their ain senses and larn through experience. She besides encouraged place instruction. On the other manus, the Macmillan Sisters ( 1859-1931 ) dedicated their lives on advancing a combined sort of service, that of societal, wellness and instruction. This was to promote female parents to convey their kids to the baby's room. Children stayed in well-supervised drama countries. They introduced wellness and societal public assistance in their kindergarten schools to cover with a holistic development of the kid. Rudolf Steiner ( 1861-1925 ) , an Austro-Hungarian philosopher believed that larning should be holistic. In his Waldorf schools, trades music and humanistic disciplines played an of import factor in the school ‘s course of study. Whereas, Montessori and Froebel focused on other facets of larning that of single find, Steiner based his thoughts on more societal facets. Maria Montessori ( 1870-1952 ) , an Italian doctor, worked with hapless and mentally handicapped kids. She taught them self help accomplishments. Montessori besides believed that kids had an unconditioned ability to larn educational accomplishments. In the Montessori environment, kids were encouraged to rectify their ain errors, therefore allowing the kid to be reinforced positively and later get an internal satisfaction. Whilst Froebel believed that concrete objects would besides learn abstract constructs, Maria Montessori believed that kids ‘s acquisition would steer and assist the kid to construct up a better hereafter. Her multi-sensory attack to acquisition is still really popular in kindergarten categories. Another innovator, Susan Sutherland Isaacs ‘s ( 1885-1948 ) influence is still experienced in schools. She established the ‘experimenting ‘ Malting House School in 1924. Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) pg 54 her doctrine highlighted the construct of ‘discovery ‘ acquisition and drama as the kid ‘s primary instruction. She besides believed in the ‘maximum usage of the out-of-doorss ‘ Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) pg 107 Jean Piaget ‘s ( 1896-1980 ) doctrine besides respected kids as ‘independent scholars ‘ . He argued that kids learn from their self-generated engagement of activities. He besides emphasised the engagement of drama to heighten cognitive development. ‘Piaget viewed drama as a procedure in which the kid is active and through which the kid learns ‘ , ( O'Hagan and Smith, 1993, p.69 ) . O'Hagan, M. & A ; Smith, M. ( 1993 ) Early Old ages Child Care and Education: Key Issues 2nd erectile dysfunction. China: Tindall Piaget spoke about kids during their childhood as being ‘egocentric ‘ , that is to state that because of their restricted cognition of the universe, they have problem understanding the point of position of others. His work presented much unfavorable judgment. Donaldson ( 1978 ) in peculiar argued that many of Piaget ‘s research lacked relation to existent life. ( Donaldson 1978 ) . Donaldson, M. ( 1978 ) Children ‘s Minds London: Fontana Another early theoretician, who can be remembered as a ‘constructivist ‘ is Lev Vygotsky ( 1896-1934 ) . Whilst holding with Piaget that kids were ‘active ‘ scholars, he placed more weight on societal communicating with others, as a manner to excite acquisition. He introduced the ‘zone of proximal development ‘ . Although he besides believed that rational development was natural, he argued that a kid had to hold the counsel of grownups to achieve her optimum potency. ( MacLeod-Brudenell, 2004 ) . MacLeod-Brudenell, I. ( Ed ) ( 2004 ) Advanced Early Years Care and Education Oxford: Heinemann. It can be argued that, the doctrine of these historical figures can be correlated to their reading of the issue of ‘children ‘s rights ‘ . All agree that kids have the right to larn. Jalango M.R. et Al, support this thought by saying that â€Å" All immature kids have a right to develop optimally, to hold their intrinsic worth as human existences recognised, and to hold their acquisition facilitated by caring grownups † Jalongo M.R. , Fennimore B.S. , Pattnark. J. , Laverick D. M. , Brewster J. , and Mutuku M. ( 2004 ) Blended positions: A Global vision, † Early on Childhood Education Journal Vol 32, no 3 The construct that acquisition is a procedure which can non be hurried has been echoed through clip by all innovators of Early Childhood Education. Nowadays kids are made to larn from printed out press releases. It is hard for me to believe that immature babies can accomplish more from this formal instruction, than they do from experimenting with age- appropriate undertakings. Presents, the ideal kindergarten schoolroom is allowing kids experimenting in an enriched environment, caring for pets and workss, originative picture, prosecuting themselves in function drama and above all acquiring messy. Acts and Legislations â€Å" There is no responsibility more of import than guaranting that kids ‘s rights are respected, that their public assistance is protected, that their lives are free from fright and that they can turn up in peace † . Kofi Annan, the 7th Secretary-General of the United Nations It is argued that all kids ought to hold an equal chance to show their abilities and should be respected as persons. Unfortunately this was non ever the issue. In 1862, the Revised Code was established. Grants were given to simple schools harmonizing to the class of public presentation and abilities of its students. Gradually, the life for hapless kids started altering. It took some clip for the present authorities to make up one's mind that it was of import for the kids to be protected by jurisprudence. Child-labour was discussed in parliament, and it was established that no kid under the age of 10 was allowed to work in a mine. Parliament besides passed a jurisprudence necessitating kids to go to school every hebdomad. This was presented in parliament by Lord Shaftesbury who subsequently on founded and was president of the Ragged School Union. These ‘ragged schools ‘ were for hapless kids. However, school was non yet mandatory, and kids had to pay for this service. The Forster Education Act of 1870 came into force and required that all England would supply simple schools to immature kids. The Mundella Code of 1882 brought on a large alteration. Finally, schooling became mandatory. All kids had to go to school till the age of 10 and subsequently on it became obligatory till the age of 12. Shortly after on, the school ‘s ‘pence ‘ fee was removed. Discussions started in parliament, to make up one's mind the age when a kid should get down go toing school. The thought of directing the kids a twelvemonth before other European states was brought up by Mundella. He addressed the parliament and said â€Å" I ask you Englishmen and Englishwomen are Austrian kids to be educated before English kids? † ( National Education League 1869:133 ) National Education League 1869:133 ) Report of the General Meetings of the Members of the National Education League. , Birmingham: National Education League After the Second World War, in Britain, the lessening in household siblings and the shuting down of kindergarten schools had lessened the chance for small kids to play and socialize. At that clip, the Local Education Authorities ( LEAs ) found it difficult to add to the figure of baby's rooms, as the Ministry of Education Circular 8/60 said that there could be no addition in nursery school proviso. The deficit of LEA baby's room topographic points and the uninterrupted addition of parental consciousness in the small kids ‘s well-being and instruction during their childhood, triggered a new kind of nursery proviso, that of baby's room groups. In 1972, the Secretary of State for Education, Ms. Margaret Thatcher presented a White Paper, which planned for nursery twenty-four hours schools to be provided for the small kids. There was no turning back. Nowadays research shows that kids ‘s rights are recognised internationally. These have been acknowledged in most of the states, through both international and national pacts. The most of import Torahs which contributed to the rights of the kids are, The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, Declaration of Human Rights, Children Act 1989, the Education Act 2002, Every Child Matters, and the new Childcare Act 2006 which is wholly devoted to early childhood pattern. Furthermore, the Salamanca Statement, 1994 -UNESCO besides states that all kids irrespective of their civilization, ability or linguistic communication have the right to develop their single potency. Historically, kids with particular demands were excluded from mainstream categories. This became a major human r ights issue. ‘Regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effectual agencies of battling prejudiced attitudes, making welcoming society and accomplishing instruction for all † The Salamanca Statement 1994, UNESCO 1994 Clearly now all the kids are active persons who â€Å" can lend to society amongst others, and who are much more competent than we choose to believe and at much younger ages excessively † . Freeman cited in King, ( 2007:210 ) King, M. ( 2007 ) Children ‘s rights to engagement. In Waller, T. ( 2007 ) An debut to Early Childhood. Paul Chapman: London The Establishment of Laws and Acts in Malta Education is the uterus in which our society reproduces itself and re-creates itself for the hereafter. ( Louis Galea Minister of Education, National Minimum Curriculum Malta -1999 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //curriculum.gov.mt/docs/nmc_english.pdf During the 19th and beginning of the 20th century in Malta, the huge bulk of Maltese households besides lived in great poorness. Childhood was non much different for Maltese kids. Boys, at a really early age, were sent to labor in Fieldss to assist their households whilst, misss helped their female parents at place. As the Maltese households were really hapless, the necessity to supply their kids with proper instruction was ne'er considered. During the British stay in Malta, the Governor Sir Henry F. Bouviere ( 1836-42 ) engaged Mr. John Austin the High Commission to make research about the state of affairs of the Maltese households. In the Commissioner ‘s study of 1836, Mrs. Sarah Austin commented on the Maltese kids and stated that: â€Å" The moral and rational part of the people is awful. No schools in the Casals, no tolerable instruction for the middling categories, a University whose first professor received ?25 a twelvemonth, no imperativeness, no topographic point for treatment, no intercourse with the English of an amicable and informative type- what wonder if they are nescient and infantile. The lone thing I can non understand is how life is sustained under these fortunes. †Quoted from Dr. David R. Marshall in History of the Maltese Language in Local Education ( Malta, University Press 1971 ) pg 13In 1849, in Malta there were merely 30 primary schools, whilst in Gozo merely two little schools were established. Sir Patrick Joseph Keenan, the current Commissioner composing a study about, in 1881 besides suggested ‘payment harmonizing to consequences obtained by kids ‘ . Teachers were paid harmonizing to the consequences, which were obtained by the kids. These had to sit for an test which was given by the ‘inspector ‘ . This English system was besides used in Malta boulder clay 1900. J. Zammit Mangion provinces ; ‘the dictatorship of reading and authorship and calculation was now complete. The kids were trained like arrow to bark at print ‘ . J Zammit Mangion, in op.cit. p.135. In the early 20th century ( 1927 ) a study was carried out in Malta, and Pawlu F. Bellanti ( 1901 ) stated that, â€Å" the fact that about 50 per cent of the lifting coevals are turning up without any kind of preparation or direction is of excessively serious a nature to be left unnoticed. † Bellanti P.F. , Census of the Maltese Islands taken on the Sunday the 31st March, 1901, under Ordinances no X of 1900 and NoIII of 1901, ( Malta Government Printing Office, 1903 ) p.LVII In 1944 the Education act gave rise to the creative activity of other schools and in 1981, the creative activity of particular educational demands schools. The Education Act in Malta came into force in 1988. It declared that obligatory instruction commences at the age of 5 old ages. It besides declared that it was the duty of every parent of a kid to do certain that their baby had to go to school everyday during the whole scholastic twelvemonth. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.european-agency.org/country-information/malta/national-overview/legal-system It was a interruption through for all the kids. Inclusive instruction was besides a large issue and the Maltese National Minimum Curriculum ( 1999 ) , dedicates a subdivision wholly to early childhood instruction. It acknowledges inclusive Education as one of the basic rules in instruction. By contrast to old centuries, a kid with a disablement now attends a mainstream kindergarten, with other kids. In 2000 The Equal Opportunities Act was established in ParliamentInfo. The Equal Opportunities Act ( 2000 ) spoke about inclusion and stated that it was against the jurisprudence for an educational entity to know apart against handicapped kids. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.european-agency.org/country-information/malta/national-overview/legal-system My memories of childhood â€Å" All immature kids have the right to develop optimally to hold their intrinsic worth as human existences recognized and to hold their acquisition installations by caring grownups † Jalango M.R. , Fennimore B.S. , Pattmark. J. , Laverick De Anna M. , Brewster J. , and Mutuku M. ( 2004 ) Blended Positions: A planetary vision ( from ) Early on childhood Education Journal Vol 32, no 3, December 2004 The class of developing the construct of childhood is an on-going uninterrupted pattern. In the twentieth century the most critical alteration in the public assistance of kids was the dramatic reformation in wellness issues and instruction. Governments funded societal benefits which later, enabled the kid to widen his or her life anticipation and to hold a better instruction. Vaccines and medical specialty were administered to extinguish childhood diseases and schools were established all over Europe. However, I was raised up in Gozo, the little sister island of Malta, and traditions were still more dominant. Religion was the chief focal point of the community and households. I attended a convent school run by a spiritual society. The sisters in the baby's room ran the kindergarten school in a really regime manner. We ever started our twenty-four hours with supplications and anthem. Morning lessons started with mathematics and we would declaim over and over once more a set of Numberss. A paragraph from the Holy Bible was read every forenoon by the female parent superior, whilst we subsequently chanted Psalmss until we got them perfect. However, I do n't hold affectionate memories of this school, as I still retrieve the gustatory sensation of pod liver oil which I had to digest as a ‘compulsory daintiness ‘ . I was ne'er allowed to larn through geographic expedition or drama. No stimulating or originative activities were introduced. However an enriched nurturing environment was provided at place. My childhood memories at place with my household are both memorable and positive. A balanced life was maintained where my emotional and physical basic demands were provided and catered for. Like a sponge I absorbed the basic foundations of maturity which finally helped me take duties of a parent. My parents provided me with love, instruction, protection and were my role-models. Fantastic odors filled our house and my place was a topographic point of comfort and love. As a kid I remember holding completed my prep, embarking outside and playing in the empty streets. It was traditional to play in the quiet backstreets. We invented new games and played ‘hopscotch ‘ , ‘catch ‘ , ‘hide and seek ‘or beads and marbles. We engaged ourselves in ‘miniature grownup ‘ function and we played for really long periods without any grownup ‘s supervising or intervention. This playing in the street allowed me to increase my creativeness, develop my leading and enabled me to work as a group. It is through drama that I interacted with the universe around me. It brought out the maximal potency of my childhood ‘s development – intellectually, physically, socially and emotionally. The purposes of early childhood instruction Pestalozzi and many other innovators, agree that instruction is good to society, to the state ‘s economic system but most of all for the person who will hold an chance to turn out his abilities. This is supported by Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 pg 179 ) who states that ; â€Å" Society and the economic system of a state are enhance as a consequence of improved instruction, but instruction is about something else every bit good and should be valued as a manner of assisting single work forces, adult females and kids to go more to the full cognizant of themselves and their possible within themselves to develop as human existences † . Nutbrown C. , Clough P. , Selbie P. , ( 2010 ) Early on Childhood Education Sage London As all research workers and historiographers agree, the first few old ages of the kid are important. Both Vygotsky and Piaget had the same sentiment that kids are active scholars. However, Vygotsky placed more accent on societal interaction with grownups. Social behaviors are encouraged in early childhood instruction. At school a kid can larn through take parting, detecting behavior, and function modeling. Socialisation encourages teamwork and turntaking. It besides enhances linguistic communication accomplishments, and expands their vocabulary. And as Nutbrown ( 2010 ) argues ‘Children are born with a demand to play and research ‘ Nutbrown C et Al pg11 Early Childhood Education Froebel and Isaac besides sustain the same positions. A kid can heighten his or her societal, emotional, rational and physical development through playing activities. This besides applies to today ‘s thoughts, where kids in a kinder school experiment with playthings and things around them. Imaginative drama helps them, develop rational accomplishments. Children will endeavor to work harder when promised positive supports. Robert Owen was one of the innovators who believed in wagess. On the other manus, physical development is encouraged when kids play with sand and H2O, manipulate clay, or do finger picture. As one can reason, early childhood instruction promotes the optimum schemes to develop the kid ‘s maximal development. Childhood at the bend of the 20 first century As one can gain, history is reiterating itself. It is deserving reflecting, how we are rekindling the thoughts of past innovators and later go throughing them on as our ain â€Å" new † thoughts. This is supported by Rosemary Peacocke ( 1999 ) , when she stated that it is a affair of â€Å" old vino in new bottles, old Plasticine in new forms † . She continues to prolong her positions by stating that history comes as a â€Å" round way † . Whilst Cathy Nutbrown ( 2010 ) besides supports this thought and claims that â€Å" nil is new, thoughts merely repeat † . I ask, do we larn from history, or do we perpetrate the same errors? Lesley Abbott and Helen Moylett ( 1999 ) Early Education Transformed. London: Palmer PressCathy Nutbrown, Peter Clough, Philip Selbie ( 2010 ) Early on Childhood Education History Philosphy and Experience. London: Sage Publications BibliographyResearch workers of the hereafter will maintain traveling back to the instructions of past philosophers, in hope of accomplishing the perfect consequence for the optimum upbringing of kids, that of nurturing, and educating each kid to achieve his or her maximal possible through her childhood â€Å" It is indispensable to hold a better conceptual articulation of what good early childhood instruction is, with appropriate appraisal and rating, which does non cut across its valuable traditions † . ( Bruce, 1997, p.204 ) Bruce, T. ( 1997 ) Early on Childhood Education London, Hodder & A ; Stoughton Ironically many of the thoughts that shaped the kids ‘s features of past century still use today. Children still work, the difference being, that sometimes they do odd occupations to gain excess pocket money to purchase new entertaining engineerings. Girls are non needed as ‘little mas ‘ anymore, but play practical households on the computing machine. Since the beginning of indoor activities such as computer/ picture games, and telecasting, serious concerns have evolved about childhood-life. The freedom of childhood which was so much believed in and encouraged by early innovators is being now endangered by the fright of development of new engineerings. Today the modern construct of childhood is that society position kids as â€Å" societal existences, active in the building of their ain worlds and subjectivenesss and hence potentially active in the building and deconstruction of dominant political orientations † ( Cole, 2004, p.6 ) Cole, M ( 2004 ) † Time to Emancipate the Mind: primary Schools in the New Century † Primary Teaching Studies, August 2004, Trentham Books Life for kids is once more being restricted, as now they live in big blocks of flats, with small infinite or clip to be originative. Much can be debated about the continued being of kids ‘s street civilization which reigned supreme during my childhood! Is this ‘golden epoch ‘ for kids? Decision Despite all this, in this exciting clip of uninterrupted development, I have to acknowledge that this century is offering kids in their early old ages, better public assistance and acquisition chances, which are appropriate to their single demands. This survey has enabled me to sketch the early childhood twelvemonth, and set up that these old ages are influential on a kid ‘s big life. I came to a decision that the attitude of society towards the construct of childhood throughout the centuries has changed in a positive manner, and society presents perceives childhood as an of import factor in a kid ‘s life. Unlike kids of past ages, now have position in society and are persons. Qvortrup et Al, ( 1994 ) besides supports this fact by stating that â€Å" Childs today are no longer seen as uncomplete grownups non yet able to take part in societal life, but as co-constructors of childhood and society † . Qvortrup, J. , M. Bardy, G. Sgritta and H. Wintersberger ( 1994 ) Childhood Matters: Social Theory, Practice and Politics. Aldershot: Avebury.

Empowerment Paper Essay

In the wake of many recent tragedies including both those created by nature as well as those caused by man, we have seen the number the human service organizations grow beyond leaps and bounds. However how these agencies interact with their clients can play a valuable role when these clients come in to receive services. In trying to meet the needs of all those in the wake of such tragedies, it is often hard to understand how someone can also empower others within the agency that is offering services. In the light of helping everyone, many agencies are now implementing services now geared or centered on or around the needs of their client. However, this is one thing that leaves many human service managers faced with a pressing question: How can a human service program or agency come together and in doing so in a manner that can provide an adequate means for this kind of work? It is often because in today’s standards we see so many agencies working with â€Å"multimillion-dolla r budgets, professional staffs, and expensive facilities that one may find it hard to believe that the underlying philosophy is one that any agency can live on.† However, it is the agency that utilizes an empowerment-focused attitude and the theories that support them that has been an area of centralized research for many organizations for several years. It is the utilization of an empowerment approach within the agency that ensures that if the client can receive services or aid, it will given or done so in a manner that is both respectful as well without bias. At any agency, it should be understood that no matter what we want empowerment to be used not only to lift up the client but also to help to encourage the clients to do better each and every day. It is by using approaches aimed to promote positive energy and strength-based approaches along with client’s strengths can be the basis to build on, as this can help strengthen his or her weaknesses. According to Hardina et al. (2007), social service  management is characterized by 12 fundamental principles in relation to the empowering approach. For the population or consumers addres sed in our dream agency, it is these principles that are of the most importance for them to have a feeling that they belong and that their needs are just as important. For these individuals have already in most cases given up as their cycle of poverty have been occurring generation after generation. For many years many organizations were often quick to use a problem-based approach to helping their clients, and for a long time this was accepted and part of the norm. However, in the past few decades the focus now revolves around that of strength and empowerment (Cowger, 1994). From a social service management point of view, it is this focus that has been to strong an issue to ignore. It is the client, who even with being overwhelmed with other life challenges, when given the opportunity, can play a major role in the organizational decision making process. For they can bring a different view point to the forefront, as most are situations many deal with on a daily basis. It is a known fact that in the social work or the social services arena, decision making is an important task on every level. Understanding that critically, decision regarding the goals of the agency and its interaction within the community as well as how the agency is maintained can and usually made on an administrative level. However, when it relates to the overall continued existence as well as the agency’s effectiveness in addressing the needs and wellness of the client, these are just as important but may be made by other staff within the organization. Providing an answer to or even better finding a means to help in solving their client’s problem is the sole responsibility of service workers and administration alike, but making sure those servicing the client know and understand this as well. It is known that because each client is different so will the challenges one will face in offering them services, so making sure that the staff is properly trained in the area of whatever expertise needed. Having the knowledge as well as the skills is a vision that I can see for the agency that I have in mind. Having an agency in which everyone is treated as an equal and work together in providing encouragement not on to the client but for each fellow co-worker within the agency. Understanding that in the midst of a tragic storm no one situation is more important than  any one else’s, as everyone may have lost some near and dear to them. It is in offering support for those individuals whose situations may have occurred or was c reated by themselves or those in which they may have been a victim. Everyone would like nothing better than to stop the cycle of emotions that often result after a tragedy. Giving clients access to learning about or locating needed resources to find and obtain the services they are in need of can help them begin to heal one principle stated the â€Å"empowerment-oriented organizations acknowledge the limitations of participatory management approaches and take proactive measures to balance inclusion.† For agencies whose consumers are drawn from populations that are marginalized and disempowered these principles are very important. It is also very imperative that to note that in order to meet the urgent needs of people who face multiple sources of oppression and multiple traumas, and again stress that in offering help it is done so in a manner that is in line with respect and dignity. It is my dream agency whose overall commitment is quality service aimed at meeting the needs of the client as well as one in which the staff is well trained in diversity as it relates to the different cultures served. No one will be discriminated against and based on the age, race, national origin, sexual orientation, mental status, or political beliefs. In addressing client diversity, having staff and information available in other languages would be a plus. Also, having a manager that believes whole heartedly the mission statement of the organization. They display even in times of adversity a leadership quality that is in line with what the dream agency is promoting. It is the ability to influence others to follow in approaching the problem head on and in doing so the group can work together to share the knowledge needed to address the problems at hand. Even with one looked upon as a leader any decision made is only one that is looked at as one that they as leader has suggested. Clarifying the role that each will play in helping the client and having a common goal in putting team decisions in priority. It is also in trusting each other that each respects the other as diversity happens not only with the clients served but the tam we may work with, as it is diversity that helps the agency focus and understand the differences of those clients. Find a balance in the team, we emphasize the use of regular in-service meetings as a means to evaluate the effectiveness of open communication. Understanding that together as a team  and with a group effort, the decisions made can be one that when observed together, everyone can gain some satisfaction in knowing that they worked together to get the job done†¦helping the client! In offering the best client care we would need to find and utilize different strategies and implement these strategies inn getting positive feedback from all those involved in the care of the client. These strategies include but are not limited to the following: Adhere to the mission statement and the vision that the agency was created upon. Understand that leadership is agency wide, everyone should be committed to the organizational mission statement. Include everyone that is going to be effected by the decisions made between the agency and the client from the beginning process until they client gain b ack their independence. Respect is agency wide, a supportive network can encourage overall job satisfaction with a better quality output from the employees to pass on to the client. Offer a systematic approach of giving and receiving feedback to monitor if there may be a need for intervention or strategy changes. Technology that offers both the patient and their family a means of gaining much needed information as well as the option to communicate with those involved in their case. It is stated in the text that â€Å"organizational theory is used to explain, and sometimes guide, the way organization work† and whether consciously or not but only when they apply them consciously and based on their own theoretical beliefs will they be more effective. In seeking to put some organization to their program it is understood they still do have other choices. It is this knowledge that the purpose of any agency would be empowerment, but in order for the agency to reach their goal in helping others, the manager must realize their own empowerment. Then and only then can we empower the client to realize their potential so they can return and again become productive in their communities. References Cowger, C. D. (1994). Assessing client strengths: clinical assessment for client empowerment. Social Work. 39(3): 262- 268. Lewis, J. A., Lewis, M. D., & Packard, T. R. (2012). Management of human service programs (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Project Manager Status Report Essay

Provide a quick executive overview of the status of the project in this section It is intended for high level management so it should not get too much into the details of the project. However, it should highlight anything specific, which should be brought to their attention. The Scope/Schedule/Cost/Quality table above is a quick way to present a color coded dashboard for the status report. Typically a variance of +/- 5% will warrant a yellow cautionary color and +/- 10% will warrant a red warning color. For a project which needs tighter control +/- 2% and +/- 5% are used for these thresholds; whereas, other projects with less strict control may use 10% and 20% variances. The percent complete here should be the percent completion of the entire project. For any constraint which is yellow or red this section should contain brief explanation the reason why. Example: The project schedule is 7% behind schedule due to inclement weather which has affected the installation of the fiber optics throughout the campus. This should not affect the project completion date as crews are planning to make up the time by working weekends and extended hours next month. The project risks is red due to the inclement weather and servers which were delivered last month weren’t configured with the correct hardware specifications. The impact of the inclement weather on the schedule will be mitigated by having crews make up the time by working weekends and extended hours next month. Currently we are working with the server vendor to resolve the server hardware configuration problem. The configuration delivered will not handle the work load of going live in two months; however, it is sufficient for development and testing activities scheduled prior to going live. Once you have finished understanding this section you can just highlight the directions and example and place your specific information for your team’s weekly report. Work Planed for Last Month For this section you can copy the â€Å"Worked Planned for Next Week† section from last week’s status report and paste it into this section. Work Completed Last Week In this section you should provide a highlight of work performed and milestones and/or deliverables met during the past week. Work Planned For Next Week Provide an overview of the work being performed during the next week and any milestones or deliverables you expect to meet. Open Issues This section should contain a list of open issues along with their status. Open Risks This section should contain a list of all open risks (risks which have occurred, or are on the verge of occurring). Deliverables and Milestones This section is a quick table, which shows the status of the project milestones and deliverables. The first column is for the name of the Milestone or Deliverable as it’s in the project plan. The next column is the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) number, this makes it easier to find the milestone/deliverable in the project plan (You will create WBS numbers when you create your Work Breakdown Structure form, so for now you can just leave this blank). Planned is the planned date according to the approved project plan, the forecasted is the date you expect and actual is the actual date the milestone was met or deliverable was delivered. The status is a simple one or two word status such as; completed, on schedule, behind schedule, accepted, etc. Milestone WBS Planned Forecasted Actual Status Deliverable WBS Planned Forecasted Actual Status Open Change Requests Use this section to track all changes to the project and report the status of those changes. Tracking of changes starts with the request for the change, tracks the approval status and ends when the change is added to the project, the project plan and schedule update and it has become a part of the project. (You can create your own change request numbers) EXAMPLE Change Request Name Change Request Number Request Date Current Status Add xyz Functionality CR55043 3/14/20xx In Review by Change Control Board Add Redundant Servers CR55012 2/17/20xx Approved and Being Added to the Project Plan Key Performance Indicators (KPI’s) Many managers turn right to this section as it provide a clear view of the status of the project according the earned value metrics. In your project you need to decide which metrics to monitor, but be sure not to include too many as you may end up providing the same information but in different forms. We like to track SV, SPI, CV and CPI in the layout below. Next to the schedule and cost headings you should state whether the project is ahead of or behind schedule and over or under budget. Notice we left out the word on – it is highly unlikely that you. If you like you can also include a paragraph at the beginning of this section presenting the earned value results in verbose. IF a budget is involved you will need to include information in this section: Schedule – Project is Ahead of/Behind Schedule Schedule Variance (SV):$xxxx Schedule Performance Index (SPI):x.xx Cost – Project is Over/Under Budget Cost Variance (CV):$xxx Cost Performance Index (CPI):x.xx

Criminal justice Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Criminal justice - Assignment Example This system was based on the principle of parens patriae and was later adopted throughout United States. Categories of children include delinquent, children who are not disciplined, dependent as well as neglected children, children who have committed sexual offences and children who have been abused. 2. As a result of the Gault case children were provided by the court with four rights that have been provided to the adults. These rights include notification of the charges levied on a offender, right to hire a lawyer, right to indulge in cross examination and confrontation with witnesses as well as the right to remain silent otherwise whatever he says would be tested in the court. The rights that were not provided include the providing of a copy of the transcript of the appeal as well as the right to further appeal the decision in a higher court. Another case that had a major impact on the way juvenile offenders are handled was the case of Kent Vs. US in which the court accepted that a juvenile had the right of due process that takes place in the case of adult trials. 3. Similarities in the juvenile and adult justice system includes the right to stay silent, right to hire and consult a lawyer provided to both adults and juveniles. The differences include the release of a child in the custody of parents while adults are released on the basis of a bail. Juvenile court hearing records are kept secretive, while adult court hearing records are publicized. Juveniles are not provided with the right to have a jury trial and this right has been provided to the adults. The purpose of juvenile justice system is to protect as well as rehabilitate, while in case of adults the purpose is punish and reform. 4. Juveniles should continue to receive preferential treatment as compared to the treatment that adults receive because firstly their crimes are not as severe in nature as

Whirlpool Credit Scandal Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Whirlpool Credit Scandal - Term Paper Example The financial arrangement was very profitable since the firm was earning an interest rate income of 18% to 22%. The â€Å"open end† notes worked like credit cards that are used for a single purchase. The company during the 1990s expanded its business to include the sale of dish antennas. At the time this was a unique opportunity by targeting homes in rural areas that did not have access to cable television. These dish contracts were the focus of controversy. The company claims that the problems were a misunderstanding, but in reality it seemed that the actions of the salesmen of the company were calculated and were performed intentionally to mislead the customers. The root of the controversy was based on the customer’s claim that the salesmen told them that the dish antennas were financed on the three year basis, when in reality the company was offering a financing term of five years. The no money down financing offer that the company offered to finance the acquisition of antennas was an initiative that served a social purpose. It helped a lot of poor and lower middle class citizens in rural regions improve their quality of life. Satellite television provided access to hundreds of channels. Rich people could acquire the Dish antennas by paying cash because the $1124 cost was insignificant to them. The problem with these contracts was that they were deceiving customers by hiding the fact that accumulated interest would increase the contract length to five instead of three years. The end result of the Dish antenna contract was that it hurt the economic well being of poor people by keeping them in debt for an extended period of time. One of the lessons to be learned from this case study is that people should carefully read the terms of the written contracts instead of trusting the word of deceptive salesmen. The economic benefit of the case was that the Whirlpool National Financial Bank created a financial tool that allowed poor people and persons wi th bad credit access to expensive Dish satellite equipment. The purpose of the â€Å"open end† notes was to facilitate the acquisition of satellite television to American citizens of all social classes. The salesmen of the company entered into unethical behavior when they misled buyers into thinking that the Dish equipment debt would be liquidated in a term of three years. The controversy with the financing became a legal matter. The customers were within their right to seek legal action because they entered into financing contracts under false premises. The executive management team of Whirlpool realized that the company was facing a major legal problem. Lawsuits are an undesirable outcome for companies due to the financial costs associated with the legal process and because the news of a pending lawsuit against a company hurts the corporate image of a firm (Referenceforbusiness, 2012). The out of court settlement that Whirlpool signed to resolve the conflict is the first st ep towards fixing the situation. The firm must now take corrective actions to ensure the problem does not continue to occur. An alternative solution for the company is to restructure its credit offering to eliminate the clause that converted the contract into a five year term. It is not reasonable to charge a customer for five years to acquire a consumer good in the technological industry. The firm should limit its financing terms to a maximum of two years. A way to ensure that the company can keep the monthly payments low for the customers is by lowering the acquisition cost of the Dish antennas. There is more money to be made in the servicing contracts than in sales of equipment. A second solution that should be implemented in conjunction with the first solution identified is to start a new

Mathematical Concepts in Registered Nursing Career Research Paper

Mathematical Concepts in Registered Nursing Career - Research Paper Example They would normally be stationed in hospitals, home healthcare service providers, physicians’ offices and in nursing care facilities. Before licensing, prospective registered nurses should have acquired relevant academic qualifications in approved nursing program ranging from diploma to bachelor’s degree. To further understand the roles played by registered nurses, it would be critical to examine their specific duties.Specific Duties of a Registered Nurse Borrowing from the registered nurses’ outlook as documented by BLS, nurses observe patients and record symptoms of patients and their medical histories. Patients’ medical histories serve to give indications of their current medical condition. By analyzing the patients’ medical histories, the nurse would in essence be considering the past statistics. The nurse would be majorly concerned with relative frequencies of past medical conditions. To effectively achieve this, these nurses would appreciate t he important role played by measures of central tendencies including the median, mode and mean as documented by Meerschaert (214), in evaluating these historical observations. To make these numerical data useful to the registered nurse, there would be need to understand the concepts in probability and statistics so as to evaluate the chance and collect, organize, analyze and describe numerical data ). These mathematical functions help organize these observations in a meaningful manner.BLS also notes that nurses operate and monitor some medical equipment. This therefore means that the nurses have the ability to perform diagnostic tests and analyze the results thereof. Probability and statistics mathematics finds key application in nursing in the diagnosis of medical conditions. To be particular, relative frequencies of observed phenomena would give crucial leads to diagnosis of existing medical conditions. As discussed by Timmons, Johnson and McCook (351), relative frequencies would show the frequency of each category, in this case the categories being the medical conditions. Higher frequencies of a particular pathogen could point out at the medical condition being a consequent of such. Probability being a study of random events helps nurses in diagnosis such that higher relative frequencies indicate a higher probability of recurrence of such medical conditions. In consultation with doctors and other available healthcare professionals, nurses set up the plans for the care of patients or advise on the existing plans. They teach the patients together with their families on ways of managing their injuries or illnesses. Since public health and home health nurses travel to the location of patients to deliver such services, they would appreciate the knowledge of statistics and probability in planning their schedule so as to effectively utilize their resources. To be specific, nurses would plan to visit their patients densely distributed in a region at a go so as to save on time and resources. In offering care, nurses also give medicines and treatments to patients as observed by BLS. The quantity and frequency of drug intake they prescribe referred to as dosage in nursing terminology would be determined by the

Evaluation Rally championship Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Evaluation Rally championship - Coursework Example Evaluation is important in a rally car championship just as in any other field. To perform an evaluation, it is important to choose an evaluation tool and instrument in order to properly assess the ability of all the participants who took place in the training program (ASTD 24). Evaluation of each participant should be measured against the requirements and objectives of the course. The selection of the evaluation instruments is dependent on the stage or the level of training. Kirkpatrick’s four level training models help in analyzing the effectiveness of a program, and they include reaction, learning, behaviour and results. Level 1: Reaction This level measures the reaction of the trainees towards the car rally championship training. ... The type of question used will depend on the main purpose of evaluation. Select the type of questions which can be closed ended or open ended Design the questionnaires Pre-test the questionnaires to determine if they are ideal to be tested on the participants Finalize the questionnaire Level 3: Behaviour This level enables the evaluator to evaluate the progress of the trainees in terms of their changed behaviour based on what they have learnt. This level looks at how the trainees are able to apply the information learnt. There are four necessary conditions required for a change to take place: The person must work in the right climate The person must have the desire to change The person must be given a reward for the change The person must know what to do and how to do it Impact survey is the appropriate tool for evaluating behaviour change on the learners. An impact survey should be carried out as a follow-up evaluation several months before the training program is completed (ASTD 24 ). This tool measures the final results that occurred in behaviour as a result of the participant’s participation in the training program. The main reason for the use of impact survey is to assess the participant’s behavioural change. Evaluation on this level will measure whether the skills and knowledge learnt by the participants is applied to work. The evaluation tools will be chosen depending on the goals of the training program. The evaluation tools will also be result based which calls for the evaluators to carry out a step by step analysis in order to meet the set objectives. The chosen tools are very important in helping the evaluators or instructors

Managerial Acconting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Managerial Acconting - Essay Example Product prices mean both fixed and variable factors and the cost unit bears a full burden of all the costs. The paper focus to illustrate the validity of the variable and absorption models of costs of production, which determines the levels of profitability of a product. It outlines the justification for difference in profits when using variable and absorption costing systems. It is imperative to note the main difference in profits when using variable and absorption costing systems. In absorption costing methods, fixed overhead costs are applicable to manufacturing costs, calculated per unit. That is, fixed costs divided by the units manufactured and sold over a period considered during costing. It results to the cost, per unit, of every unit that the firm manufactured or sold over a period. In variable costing, the fixed overhead is applied as a lump sum expense, rather than a unit. The fixed overhead include the summation of all variable costs such as raw materials and supplies among other costs. A sum of fixed overhead costs over a period is added. Instead of figuring the expenses on a unit basis, they are subtracted from the revenue as a lump sum figure. The unit profit calculated under absorption costing, therefore, is lower than that calculated under variable costing. Managements have interests that each product should have its total cost, both fixed and variable, and still generate profits. For every business, generating profits is the key target. If a product does not give benefits, then the management may consider discontinuing production over time. That implies that a product needs to recover all the costs involved in its production as well as provide returns to warrant profitability. Not all the goods provide the same contribution towards profitability. Some products may sell at a cost that covers variable costs to the maximum levels but fail to meet

Bhp billiton PowerPoint Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Bhp billiton - PowerPoint Presentation Example Slide 3 - 5 Panda Pit, BPH Billiton Open Cut Mining, BHP Billiton Crushed product awaiting shipment, BHP Billiton Slide 6 Industry Analysis (Barrile, 2008) Macro-environment Analysis Political issues Operates in countries with different political systems Black Economic Empowerment legislation introduced labor inequalities legislation in South Africa where most of the mining operations are located BHP Billiton has to operate within a broad range of the political (and legal) systems. The global nature of their operations in countries such as Chile, Australia, China and the US means that it must mitigate its activities in light of varying political processes and legal systems. By way of example in South Africa, where the company has considerable mining operations, Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) legislation has been introduced to address inequalities created by past history, particularly the exclusion of black African people from participating in the country’s economy. ... The compliance costs and in some cases remedial costs could increase the group's operational costs which in turn could affect its operating margins (Datamonitor, 2011). Consequently, these regulatory mechanisms could adversely impact the cost, production and financial performance of the group's operations. Furthermore, the interplay of demand and supply, as in other markets, is the key to price setting in commodity markets. In turn higher commodity prices can substantially add to BHP Billiton’s earnings which was the case at the end of the 2007 financial year (Barrile, 2008). Slide 7 Industry Analysis Macro-environment Analysis Social issues Affected by health, safety, environmental and community related issues BHP Billiton is affected by a range of social factors including health, safety, environmental and community related issues. The company uses the term ‘sustainability development’ to implement a broad program of policies, processes and activities that aim to make the company more responsive to social and community needs in the conduct of its businesses. Sustainability development is considered in two dimensions-the ‘business’ and ‘sustainability’ dimensions that come together to produce a more stable and valuable whole. (Barrile, 2008) Technological issues Innovation through the activities of employees such as engineers and scientists facilitate growth Focus on existing and new technologies in exploration and process engineering Science and technology are crucial factors that will bring continued success to the industry. Technological innovation through the activities of employees such as engineers and scientists facilitates growth and improved financial performance. The company focuses on understanding future trends and

The General Force of Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The General Force of Analysis - Essay Example The journal also analyzes the pressure, which suppliers place on a company has an enormous impact on the margins of the company. This includes the factors, which influence the intensity of the suppliers’ power, include shortage of suppliers and unavailability of substitutes of a product. The issue of customers affecting a company’s boundaries because of the number of buyers, the quantity of purchases, and ease of finding substitutes of a product, price and importance of a product is also discussed in the journals. The authors mention how risk of substitutes is determined by the ease of customers to acquire an alternative to a product or service because they are fascinated by cheap alternatives. In addition, Competition among companies, and how they determine the returns of a company were explored; consequently, the issue of return reduction when competition is high in the retail sector is discussed. Competition is increased when there is no company that stands above the rest and when there is no difference between products and services.The authors Munir et al, explore how the Pakistani mobile company Moblink, employs research on their stakeholders so as to determine those affected by those who influence the procedures of the company and those interested in its success or failure. Stakeholders may be individuals or organizations. The journal discusses how Moblink reduces competition in the industries by introducing barriers. It also shows how Moblink determines how suppliers and customers affect its returns.

Chinesse Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Chinesse Culture - Essay Example The aim of this paper is to do just that, as well as discuss several other particular issues, which are: the history of China in the United States, the traditional Chinese perceptions of health and illness, the traditional Chinese healing methods and views on death, and the current healthcare problems of China. By thoroughly addressing and discussing all of these issues, we will be able to come to a much more informed and knowledgeable understanding on the subject matter at hand overall. This is what will be dissertated in the following. The early history of China is rather complicated, primarily by that of the lack of a written language during this period, coupled with the existence of documents from later time periods which attempted to described certain events which occurred several centuries beforehand, thus obviously causing quite a bit of confusion and complexion. However the earliest comprehensive history of China, the Records of the Grand Historian, which were written a Chinese historiographer named Sima Qian in the 2nd century BC, and as well the Bamboo Annuals, are both able to trace and consequently show Chinese history from about 2800 BC, with an account of the Three August Ones and the Five Emperors. It is actually considered as being unknown as to who the first Chinese was to set foot in America, it is thought that more than likely it was a fisherman and that it was in San Diego. In the early 1850s, many Chinese came to California in search of gold, and later on they came as contract laborers to work on the railroads and other construction projects, and as gold mining was increasingly difficult for them and the construction projects were completed, they soon then began to seek other means of livelihood. From San Francisco and Monterey Bays the Chinese then began to go south to San Diego, where they ended up establishing a base to fish the waters all the way to Cabo San Lucas in Mexico. "They established a fishing village at Roseville in Pt. Loma and another at the foot of San Diego's New Town, the latter village to become Chinatown. They dominated this industry until 1890, and during its peak built and sailed as many as 18 junks. Besides a wide variety of fish, they had exclusi ve domain in the pursuit of abalone. They were able to supply all the fresh fish requirements of San Diego and to export dried fish products to other Chinese communities worldwide" (Lee, 1996). Then, starting in about the 1880s, the activities that were completed by the Chinese in San Diego increased, including construction of the Californian Southern Railroad between National City and San Bernardino, and as well they were involved with the work that was done on the San Diego Flume, which carried water from the Cuyamaca Reservoir to San Diego for 36 miles on 315 redwood trestles and through 5 tunnels. What's more, is that besides providing labor for large projects in irrigation and flood control, the Chinese were also involved largely in the mining of gold and precious gems in the mountains that centered in Julian. Besides fishing, which was one of the activities th

Supply Chain Essay Example for Free

Supply Chain Essay Definition: A supply chain is a network of suppliers, manufacturer and distributors which helps in transformation of raw materials into valuable products and delivering them to the customers at right price, right place and right time. The concept of supply chain applies not only to the physical products but also to services. In the case of services, suppliers become service supporter, manufacturer becomes service creator and the distributors become service provider. The aim of the supply chain is to create value by providing the customer with products and services efficiently. The supply chain is not a simple series of connections, rather it’s a complex chain of people and organizations connected to each other and interacting to create value. The various components of a supply chain are explained below: 1. Suppliers/Service Supporter: It refers to person(s), firm(s) or organization(s) that supply raw materials that can be used to manufacture the final product. For example in case of manufacturing car as final product, someone who provides tyres, engines, car chassis or any other part would be called a supplier. In case of a service, it refers to someone who provides the support in the creation of the service to the customer. For example in case of creating hotel services for customer the catering, the laundry etc. act as service supporter. In a supply chain there do not exist a single supplier, rather there are multiple suppliers or multi-tier suppliers. The supplier which is closest to the manufacturer is called first tier supplier and the chain goes on to second tier, third tier†¦ as we move away from the manufacturer. For example in car manufacturing supply chain the firms providing engines, windows, car chassis, tyres etc. are first tier suppliers whereas the firms providing steel to manufacture car chassis, rubber to manufacture tyres are second tier suppliers. 2. Manufacturer/Service Creator: It refers to person(s), firm(s) or organization(s) that manufacture the final product by processing  and assembling all the raw materials. In case of services it refers to someone who assembles all the service supports and creates the final service. A firm can act both as a supplier and a manufacturer. In above case of car manufacturing the firm which supplies tyre to the manufacturer of car act as supplier for that firm but it acts as a manufacturer for the firm supplying rubber. 3. Distributor/Service Provider: It refers to person(s), firm(s) or organization(s) that take the finished (final) products to the customer. So in case of car supply chain, the showrooms or dealers that provide the cars to customers are distributors. In case of a service, it refers to someone who provides the final service to the customer. For example in case of telecom services, Airtel, Vodafone etc. are the service providers. There can be many distributors in a supply chain depending upon the customer location. Sometimes the customers get the final product/service directly from the company showrooms and stores (for e.g. BMW and Audi showrooms, McDonald’s outlets) while sometimes the product reaches the customer through a network of wholesalers and retailers (the FMCG products, Pepsi and cola drinks etc.) 4. Customer/Consumer: They are the one who use the final product or service.They end this chain. A Case study of Ford: How did Supply Chain system helped the company to grow. Since the 1970s, the Big Three automakers (GM, Ford, and Chrysler) have seen their home markets invaded by foreign-based auto manufacturers (Toyota and Honda). In addition, the auto industry was facing overcapacity of an estimated 20 million vehicles. This lead to decreased profit margins for automakers as well as reduced sales. So, with all of these issues in the automobile industry, it was no wonder that Ford felt like it needed to make some changes to compete. Ford, like many older companies, was still using a traditional to their supply chain. Ford had tried to control as many aspects of the end vehicle  production as possible; from the production of raw materials in steel mills and rubber plantations, through all of the design, manufacturing, assembly and distribution activities. A truly vertically integrated supply chain. Unfortunately, this approach made it difficult for Ford to complete in the global automobile industry, and for that reason Ford Management felt it was time to change Ford’s supply chain. Since the late 1980s, Ford has been using a modified version of the traditional supply chain approach, by utilizing outsourcing and partnerships to handle certain functions of the supply chain. Ford does this through its â€Å"Tier 1† suppliers. These suppliers have a long term relationship with Ford and then they manage the relationships with the larger base of component suppliers. Later on Ford began using virtually integrated supply chain. With a virtually integrated supply chain, we instead have loose affiliations of companies organized as a supply network, where physical assets are replaced by information. Within a virtually integrated supply chain, manufacturing continues to be controlled by the company’s planning department, however this is not through the issuing of purchase orders, but instead by providing logistics management and forecasts for demand and receipts. With this information, the companies’ manufacturing partners can plan their production to meet the needs of the company and the market. Finished goods are no longer delivered by the company, instead they go directly to a warehousing/distribution partner who sends the products to the customers as orders come in. External Sources used for reference: http://www.slideshare.net/adithya_msridhar/ford-motor-final-presentation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_chain

Messages In The Songs Of Female Rappers Cultural Studies Essay

Messages In The Songs Of Female Rappers Cultural Studies Essay Rap is considered to be a type of music which serves as a means of expression for those who feel alienated and outraged in American society for certain reasons. According to many scholars hip hop in America originated from disadvantaged neighborhoods and served as a voice for people of who lacked post secondary education and had difficulties in finding a job in the new post-industrial service sector economy.  [1]  In the early beginning rap artists rapped about poverty, racism and injustice. As the genre was developing, rappers would look for inspiration in other aspects of their every life. Male/female relationships would appear as a common motif in their songs. As discussed in the first chapter misogynistic messages could be found in a great share of male rap hits. Although rap has been associated mainly as domain of men, female contribution to this genre is also significant. Hence it is worth to examine how their legacy contributed to the black female image in the United State s. It is also important to note how the messages in their songs differed from those of male rap artists. In this chapter I am going to focus on the motifs of black female identity which permeated the lyrics of female rap hits starting from the late eighties through the beginning of the twenty first century. I will support my analysis by referring to the works of literary black hip hop culture critics such as Tricia Rose, bell hooks, Gwendolyn D. Pough or Cheryl L. Keyes. The findings presented in this study will be based on the existing researches on the subject as well as my lyric interpretation of Billboards Hot Rap Year End Charts. One of the recognized social theorists, Patricia Hill Collins, set the theory that much of the contemporary social phenomena is understood and analyzed from the European, white male standpoint  [2]  Moreover, by this approach black women in particular have been perceived as non-human, commodified and objectified.  [3]  Needless to say it is important to counterbalance this approach by interpreting black womens lives from their perspective. I find artistic works of female rappers, as well as their interviews to a be a great source for such a counter analysis. Female rap artists would oftentimes identify themselves as belonging to a certain crew or would use the words as fly, attitude, queen, diva while describing or referring to one another. Based on those self imposed labels Cheryl L. Keyes in her study distinguished four prevailing types of female rappers: Queen Mother, Fly Girl, Sista with Attitude and Lesbian. These categories reflect certain images, voices and ages of Afr ican American women.  [4]  Interestingly enough rappers assigned to these groups marked their presence on the hip hop scene in this particular order but, as Keyes noted, they can swing between these teams or belong to a few concurrently. According to Keyes, the first group Queen Mothers consist mainly of early female rap pioneers in the 80s such as: Queen Latifah, Roxanne Shante or MC Lyte. They express strong connection to their African heritage by calling themselves Nubian queens, and wearing ethnic clothes and jewelry. The symbol of queen mother may be supposedly rooted in African court tradition. Mothers of kings in many African kingdoms used to be cult objects and granted special privileges.  [5]  Queen Mothers in hip hop culture also consider themselves as strong, intelligent black women responsible of spreading the word among the community. They discuss issues similar to their male counterparts marginalization, subjugation, and hardship of an urban life.  [6]  A theme for their concern would be also heterosexual advances of men toward women, as well as domestic violence, and male sexism. These female rappers tended to present black women as self assured and independent in their songs.  [7]   Similarly to male rappers they would aim to challenge racist white supremacy by their music. Whilst black males in order to empower themselves oftentimes resort to sexist notions addressed towards their female counterparts, Queen Mothers do not apply the same strategy of subordination. As the excerpts from the songs presented in the first chapter show, many male hip hop artists depict women merely as sexual objects and generally cast derogatory light on them. Some black culture critics, as bell hooks, claim that male gangsta rappers engage in this behavior because women supposedly emasculate black men, negating their manhood and reducing the respect received from others.  [8]  The critic also states that most black males lack of strong male (father) models to look up to. They are being convinced throughout their childhood that they are not destined to grow up as successful, strong, virtuous males. Instead they receive education how to become emotionless thugs. The author blames t he mass media for perpetuating the image of a strong, angry black woman as opposed to black castrated male who is not able to provide for his family.  [9]  Other reason for that may be the fear of female sexuality, thus women must be controlled. Queen Mothers demand respect not only for black community in general but for black women in particular. This causes a huge inner identity conflict among black women, whether to be loyal to your ethnicity and race or gender. Extending the theory of black feminism to rap, black female rappers provide back lashing voices against male sexism and misogyny.  [10]  However being a black feminist should not mean rejection of the African heritage. The African legacy may be utilized as an additional source of strength and power in this struggle. Tricia Rose in the her book, Black Noise, argues that in the late 1980s and early 1990s pioneer female rappers although refraining from calling themselves feminist, expressed three feminist standpoints: female empowerment, agency, and independence. They would rather call themselves womanists as they did not feel much connection with the predominantly white second wave feminism movement. Moreover, they felt as having been overlooked or even purposel y excluded by white feminists in their struggle for female empowerment.  [11]  These artists rejected and challenged representations of women as simply sexual objects. Rose states that these artists use rap music as a platform of dispute between other female and male artists, and their audience in general.  [12]   The most noticeable Queen Mother on the hip hop scene is Dana Queen Latifah Owens. Although latifah in Arabic means feminine, delicate and kind she proved to be also a strong and influential rap artist. At the young age of twenty one, she became well acclaimed artist. Despite her young age, her maternal behavior and mature approach to life made her to be perceived as a Queen Mother. Although she would find such comparison flattering, she tried to distance herself from being labeled. She would call herself a queen because every black female is a queen to her.  [13]  The reason why Queen Latifah and other rappers have been allocated to the group of Queen Mothers may be linked to the othermothers phenomenon in black African community. Patricia Hill Collins elaborates on this notion in Black Feminist Thought. She claims that black women take a significant part in fostering of the black society in the United States. They have developed an image of a strong black woman who contribute t o the whole black community well-being. The notion of motherhood in general, whether invoked by bloodmothers or othermothers, has powerful connotation.  [14]  It seems that African American community seeks for strong mother figures not only in real life but also on the hip hop scene. Queen Latifah reflects the image of othermother by taking up serious political-economic issues of the black community in her lyrics, as in The Evil that Men Do  [15]  where she raps about struggle of women on welfare.  [16]   Another example of a strong political commentary is Queen Latifahs song Ladies First.  [17]  She focuses here on promoting womens importance and clamors for their equal treatment. She raps about the need for sisterhood which prompts women to support each other. The notion of sisterhood is emphasized here by the fact that the artist collaborates with another black European female rapper, Monie Love. They feel connected with each other by the bonds of the same gender and race. This is a typical approach of women of color engaged in the Third Wave Feminist Movement in America. The concept of global sisterhood coined by the Second Wave feminists is questioned and challenged here. Black feminists manifest more connection with other women of color from different countries or countries of their origin than with white middle class women from the United States. The video to this song is also a tribute to African American womens history featuring images of activists and abolitionists as Ro sa Parks, Angela Davis, Harriet Tubman, or entrepreneurs as Madame C.J. Walker.  [18]  The video also features the image of Winnie Mandela which may serve as a commemoration of the struggle against segregation in South Africa as well as emphasis on the concept of global black sisterhood. The rappers bring back these images into the light in order to re-inspire all women of color and prove they are capable of achieving the highest goals as breaking the racism and sexism. Queen Latifah in her Grammy Award- winning song U.N.I.T.Y, as one of the first female artists not only proves of her rapping skills but also takes up the issues which divide black community. She focuses here on perpetuated hatred directed by black males toward black females.  [19]  She answers back to males who use the insult bitch in reference to women. She does so by using similar forms that are used by many of their male counterparts to denigrate women. For instance, by the use of vulgar language she reclaims those forms for women. Another pioneer rapper, MC Lyte in her song Paper Thin also makes a black female as a subject. She brings it to the center of discussion by rapping about the constrains of her intimacy and setting the rules by which she will date a man. According to Rose, the above mentioned artists messages are both emancipating and liberating for women. They rebel against the restrain of black female voices, offering counter hegemonic perspectives. Female gangsta rappers in particular, have created and imposed their own definitions of womanhood through their use of vulgarity, voice intonations, and sexuality.  [20]   Although most female rappers identify themselves by belonging to specific rap crews some of them would fall from one category to another or exist in many simultaneously. As an example of such a swinging artist may serve Yo Yo. The rapper and activist when perceived through the prism of her artistic and social work would be allocated to the group of queen mothers. Her songs are devoted to her view on the political issues and black feminism. She is the founder of the group Intelligent Black Women Coalition (I.BW.C.) which aimed to fight against racism and sexism. Yet, Keyes claims that her style and attire would suggest she also fits the category of so called Fly Girls who gained recognition on hip hop scene mainly in the nineties. The origin of the new meaning of the word fly dates back to the sixties and seventies and describes someone wearing fancy clothes. The style has been presented in the blaxploitation movies like The Superfly (1972), Shaft (1971), The Mack (1973) or Foxy Brow n (1974) and then adopted by the black youth in the eighties and nineties.  [21]  Indeed, what distinguished Fly Girls from Queen Mothers at first sight was their sense of fashion. Queen Mothers tried to affirm their eroticism that refrains from the nakedness and exposure of Western styles by rejection of miniskirts or high heels. Fly Girls did not fear to wear tight clothes which accentuated their sexuality. They tried to counterbalance western European beauty canon by showing the beauty of black female body, accompanied by eye catching hairstyles, shiny jewelry and suggestive dancing. By doing so they made a statement against the white supremacist stereotype of the black round female body being undesirable. It was their fashion style that made them not only heard but also visible. The male hip hop group the Boogie Boys describe a fly girl as: [Woman] who wants to see her name, her game or her ability. . . she sports a lot of gold, wears tight jeans, leather miniskirts, a made up face, has voluptuous curves, but speaks her mind.  [22]   The most prolific and well pronounced Fly Girls of hip hop scene is undoubtedly the trio Salt- N- Pepa. They aspired to be acknowledged as models of real independent and successful black women of the nineties.  [23]  They reached the peak of their popularity in the early nineties by releasing controversial hits like Lets Talk About Sex (1991), What a Man(1993), or Shoop(1993). While the first mentioned hit raised awareness about safe sex, the other songs can be interpreted as manifestation on female sexuality and appraisal of men in terms of friendship, love and intimate heterosexual relations. Lyrics from their popular song Aint Nuthin But a She Thing, again typify messages of their powerful womanhood: Im a female, and I got it goin on /Dont be fooled by my s-e-x/It aint that simple, Im more complex/Lets keep moving forward, girls, never look back.  [24]  In this song artists are exchanging ideas with women and men in general, warning men not to rely on clichà ©d notions of gender roles when interacting with women. They refuse to be considered as a weaker sex. They prove of their ability to work as hard as men, yet their intention is not to empower, or emasculate men. Similarly, they are passing on the same message to women while concurrently urging these women to progress, not regress, in their thinking and behavior. Such messages permeate most of the Salt N- Pepa top hits. Many examples of the Fly Girls songs take focus on female agency in male/female relationships perceived from the womens point of view. In the chorus of her song, Whats Up Star, Suga initiates the interaction with males: Whats up star, Id like to get to know who you are/Lets have drinks at the bar/And if I like what I see then the drinks is on me.  [25]  While men are usually considered to be the initiators in heterosexual relationships, here the artist takes it over and demonstrates her empowerment on this field. By doing so she violates an unwritten procedure of male-female courtship. She breaches the gendered norm of conduct. Instead of waiting for a man to approach her with an offer to buy her a drink, she would rather sit in judgment and contemplate over possible suitors. Upon positive evaluation of a potential mate she offers to buy him a drink. Another example of assuming power comes from a rapper and bass dancer, MC Luscious, who in her song Boom! I Got Your Boyfriend seiz es another hypothetical womens partner: Ill take him, shake him, ring him out/ Ill show your man what its all about./ So when he tells you its the end./Thats when you know I got your boyfriend.  [26]  Her use of the verbs take, shake, and ring in reference to her male lover illustrates the control that she maintains over him. She outdoes her female competitor by articulating her ability to sexually expose what the girlfriend cannot to the boyfriend, leading to the termination of the relationship. Thus, she demonstrates her control and manipulation of the lover and eventually her supremacy over the female opponent by stealing her boyfriend. Although deceitful and potentially unethical, MC Lusciouss desires, and behaviors are at the core of attention in her song.  [27]   Another significant group of Fly Girls worth noticing is TLC ( Tione T-Boze Watkins, Lisa Left-Eye Lopez and Rozonda Chilli Thomas). Their popularity had been quickly developing since their debut in 1991 and reached its maximum in the second half of the nineties. They spread similar messages to the other Fly Girls like rising awareness about safe sex (Waterfalls)  [28]  or fighting with women insecurity (Unpretty)  [29]  . They also introduced more diverse fashion sense. Instead of accentuating their fit bodies with tight clothes, they would wear baggy pants as a symbol of solidarity with women of less flattering shapes. Similar approach was taken by another Fly Girl Missy Misdemeanor Elliot. Being a successful writer and producer paved her way to the enormous success in the music industry. In no time she was offered a possibility to launch her clothing line and appeared in GAP and Adidas commercials. The fact that full-figured Missy became a model of the established clothing brand could be perceived as ground breaking in the sphere of perception of black female bodies. She serves as a role model to many black women who doubt in their attractiveness.  [30]   As during the late nineties rap became commercialized, gained greater audience and shifted to mainstream it is worth examining what were the messages conveyed by the female rappers. During this time some female artists were as popular and selling as many records as men; for example, Lil Kim and Foxy Brown both had albums that sold one million copies.  [31]  Contemporary female rappers of the late nineties and beginning of the twenty first century also endeavor in empowering and subversive mission against male domination, but the lyrical content of their songs show surprising and alarming similarities between them and male rappers. This may be one of the reasons these female rappers gained more commercial recognition than the pioneers. As means of empowerment they apply the strategy of giving the attitude and answering back in a rude manner to their male counterparts. This group of female rappers fall into category of Sistas with Attitude which consist of such popular rappers as F oxy Brown, Lil Kim, and Da Brat, or Sis, or Eve. The characteristic of their style is the employment of the same symbolic speech and behaviors as their male fellow rappers. It may seem that by doing so they show to be equal to men on every level. The lyrics of their songs included motives of indulging in hedonistic activities as partying and smoking marijuana with their men, seducing, harassing, and sexually emasculating male characters; as well as disrespecting (dissin) their male and female counterparts. Although so called dissing in female rappers songs is mainly directed at male sexism, an analysis of contemporary female rap songs reveals that there are instances the same strategy is aimed at women. It is well visible here that these women seek for their self empowerment by all means. The content of songs with attitude is abundant in vulgarity. The use of derogatory terms may be interpreted in a positive way. I trace some similarities between Sistas with Attitude and some of the Third Wave of feminism representatives. Similarly to them, female rappers reversed the pejorative meaning of vulgar words addressed to women.Sistas may be considered a coarser, clad version of Third Wave of feminism Girlies or Riot Grrls. These were usually members of underground punk bands who addressed issues as rape, female sexuality, domestic abuse, and female empowerment. Same as Sistas they also adopted derogatory, insulting words as cunt bitch slut in their vernacular. By writing these words on their skins or t-shirts they ridiculed and nullified their derogatory meaning.  [32]  On one hand reclamation of the frequently used word bitch may be perceived as positive way of self empowerment or provide healing liberation. Other critics claim that this may bring worse returns as the message of female empowerment seem to be diminished and eradicated by female self-objectification.  [33]   One of the most reoccurring motives found in female rap lyrics is their swaggering feminine self assurance. This characteristic of rap has its roots in part of African-American oral tradition of toasting , where the toast-teller employs in verbal self- enhancement, and presents himself or herself as the dreams of his [or her] Black audience and symbolize for them triumph and accomplishment against the odds.  [34]  For instance, in Sittin on Top of the World, Da Brat writes: Im on top of the worldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦/Girlfriend offender cuz they mans think Im all that/ One of the baddest bitches on the planet.  [35]  She highlights how she is so bad, meaning great to such extent that she aggravates other women because their men find her beautiful. Another fitting example of braggadocio can be found in Eves song What Ya Want,  [36]  writing Popular since I started my lifeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦/ Every thugs dream wife, see the love in they eyes/My time to shine, whole package make her a dime. In these lyrics, the rapper is presenting herself as popular, and good-looking to every male and a perfectly shaped physically ( adime in hip hop vernacular). Many rapper enhance their sense of attractiveness by emphasizing their possession of precious objects that others cannot afford. Foxy Brown, who adopted her moniker from the seventies blaxploitation movie protagonist of the same title, in Ill Na Na raps: Uhh, rollin for Lana, dripped in Gabbanaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦/And yall gon see by these mils I possess/Never settle for less, Im in excess.  [37]  Foxy highlights here the fact that she wears expensive womens designer clothing that working class and middle-class individuals could not afford. Furthermore, the audience gets the message that Foxy earns millions of dollars from her rapping. She also admits she is not willing to settle down and start a family but would rather live in abundance of material goods on her own. A vast majority of the female artists mentioned owning luxurious products of mass consumption. Obviously, possession of extravagant material goods are crucial for many contemporary female artists. Material success, fame, and sexual satisfaction is their achieved American Dream. Similarly to male rap artists who glamorize life a of a pimp, these female artists present themselves as physically attractive to possible mates as well as in possession of goods that regular people do not and cannot acquire. This type and degree of overconfidence permeates throughout rap music and is common to both sexes of rappers. It illustrates artists abilities, or their dreams, to overcome obstacles (unattractiveness, lack of money) and eventually achieve (sexual and material) success. The partying, alcohol and drugs abuse is a frequent theme also in Sistas with Attitude rap music. In the overall sample in Owares study of 44 female hip hop songs of the nineties, in each song there was an average of one-and a-half references made to alcohol or drugs.  [38]  For instance, in her song Deeper, rapper called Boss refers to both alcohol and drug use. In these lyrics, Boss is indulging in a popular malt liquor, and also smokes chronic, a strong form of marijuana mixed cocaine. Another song by Queen Pen, Party Aint a Party, presents: Im tipsy from the cab, down the whole bottle of Henney/ Is you dealing with the cat thats blunted. Queen Pens alcohol is Seagrams Hennessy and blunted means being under the influence of marijuana. These female rappers refute the stereotype that women refrain from hard alcoholic drinks and illegal drugs.. These women depict themselves as being equal to men by engaging in similar potentially harmful behaviors.  [39]   Another feature of rap music that is often taken up by female rappers is disrespecting or dissin, which is the act of verbally insulting an opponent. Dissin allegedly has its origins in West Africa, among tribes such as the Efik in Nigeria and later could be found in early African-American oral traditions.  [40]  Smitherman writes women rule when it comes to signifyingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦female rappers use this age-old rhetorical strategy to launch critical offensivesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  [41]  Traces of such style can be found in the verse rapped by Heather B.: Fuck how much you sell cause, I read your album cover/You couldnt write a jam if your last name was Smucker.  [42]  As jam may also mean a hit song she ridicules here the amount of records sold by her opponent while dissing his writing skills contrasting them with a popular food product brand Smuckers Jam. Most disrespecting attitudes were pointed at males who attempted to pursue women with pretentious tales of sexual gratification. While some rappers resorted to warning of the potential suitor who must approach them in a courteous manner or gets rejected, other rappers would openly ridicule males sex skills and their fear of womens sexuality. Considered to be one of the most overt and explicit rappers, Lil Kim in Hardcore rhymes: The sex was wack, a four stroke creepà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦/(later he asked) Could he come over right fast and fuck my pretty ass?/Ill pass, nigga dick was trash.  [43]  The rapper sets here her own conditions for a sexual intercourse. She keeps men under control and reserves the right to choose her partner by assessing his sex skills. She also implies what is surely feared by most of the heterosexual males to be ridiculed by a woman for poor sex performance. Black males in particular who have been trying to conceal the image of an emasculated black man may fee l highly sensitive about it. As many instances of male rap hits presented in the first chapter show that they tried to apply many strategies to regain their control over women. Boasting about their sexual hyper skills was a frequent topic. Gangsta Boo, a successful Sista with Attitude of the late nineties and early twenty first century, touches upon similar themes in her lyrics: Ha-ha, hey, Ladies check this out/ Well, let me tell this story about this nigga/ With a little dick but when its hard, hes swearin it (is) bigger/ Im not to be the one guess you aint got much to offer.  [44]  Here, Gangsta Boo speaks directly to women about false male machismo. Boo, similarly to her counterpart Lil Kim sets the norms here and evaluates whether her possible mate lives up to her expectations. When finds out that the man is poorly endowed she ridicules him in front of other women. Hence, as Rose writes you have women speaking to men, engaging in critiques of supposed male sexual prowess; in addition, they are speaking to other women about the failed attempts of these men to satisfy them sexually.  [45]  These disses provide a female response to male rappers chauvinism, misogyny and bragging about their sexual potency. Similarly empowering themes also permeate throughout the songs and lyrics that present female sexuality. Several popular female rap artists depicted themselves as explicitly sexualized. Lil Kim in one of her songs vulgarly demonstrates her acting upon a partner and presents herself as not submissive in sexual relationship.  [46]